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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Last Updated: Sep 5, 2024 • Article History Table of ContentsAsk the Chatbot a Question
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A circulation system goes through a sequence of stages as it intensifies into a mature tropical cyclone. The storm begins as a tropical disturbance, which typically occurs when loosely organized cumulonimbus clouds in an easterly wave begin to show signs of a weak circulation. Storms showing counter-clockwise rotation with wind speeds up to 38 km (23.6 miles) per hour are classified as a tropical depressions. If the circulation continues to intensify and the wind speeds exceed 63 km (39 miles) per hour, then the system is called a tropical storm. Once the maximum wind speed exceeds 119 km (74 miles) per hour, the storm is classified as a tropical cyclone.
There are six conditions favourable for this process to take place. The conditions are listed first below, and then their dynamics are described in greater detail:
The temperature of the surface layer of ocean water must be 26.5 °C (80 °F) or warmer, and this warm layer must be at least 50 metres (150 feet) deep.
A preexisting atmospheric circulation must be located near the surface warm layer.The atmosphere must cool quickly enough with height to support the formation of deep convective clouds.
The middle atmosphere must be relatively humid at a height of about 5,000 metres (16,000 feet) above the surface.
The developing system must be at least 500 km (300 miles) away from the Equator.The wind speed must change slowly with height through the troposphere—no more than 10 metres (33 feet) per second between the surface and an altitude of about 10,000 metres (33,000 feet).
The fuel for a tropical cyclone is provided by a transfer of water vapour and heat from the warm ocean to the overlying air, primarily by evaporation from the sea surface. As the warm, moist air rises, it expands and cools, quickly becoming saturated and releasing latent heat through the condensation of water vapour. The column of air in the core of the developing disturbance is warmed and moistened by this process. The temperature difference between the warm, rising air and the cooler environment causes the rising air to become buoyant, further enhancing its upward movement.
If the sea surface is too cool, there will not be enough heat available, and the evaporation rates will be too low to provide the tropical cyclone enough fuel. Energy supplies will also be cut off if the warm surface water layer is not deep enough, because the developing tropical system will modify the underlying ocean. Rain falling from the deep convective clouds will cool the sea surface, and the strong winds in the centre of the storm will create turbulence. If the resulting mixing brings cool water from below the surface layer to the surface, the fuel supply for the tropical system will be removed.
The vertical motion of warm air is by itself inadequate to initiate the formation of a tropical system. However, if the warm, moist air flows into a preexisting atmospheric disturbance, further development will occur. As the rising air warms the core of the disturbance by both release of latent heat and direct heat transfer from the sea surface, the atmospheric pressure in the centre of the disturbance becomes lower. The decreasing pressure causes the surface winds to increase, which in turn increases the vapour and heat transfer and contributes to further rising of air. The warming of the core and the increased surface winds thus reinforce each other in a positive feedback mechanism.
The dynamics of a tropical cyclone rely on the exterior of a storm being cooler than its core, so it is necessary that the temperature of the atmosphere drop sufficiently rapidly with height. The warm, saturated air rising in the centre of the circulation tends to keep rising as long as the surrounding air is cooler and heavier. This vertical movement allows deep convective clouds to develop. The rising air in the core also draws in some air from the surrounding atmosphere at altitudes of around 5,000 metres (16,000 feet). If this external air is relatively humid, the circulation will continue to intensify. If it is sufficiently dry, then it may evaporate some of the water drops in the rising column, causing the air to become cooler than the surrounding air. This cooling will result in the formation of strong downdrafts that will disrupt the rising motion and inhibit development.
For the development of the rapid rotation characteristic of tropical cyclones, the low-pressure centre must be located at least 500 km (300 miles) away from the Equator. If the initial disturbance is too close to the Equator, then the effect of the Coriolis force will be too small to provide the necessary spin. The Coriolis force deflects the air that is being drawn into the surface low-pressure centre, setting up a cyclonic rotation. In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of the resulting circulation around the low is counterclockwise, and in the Southern Hemisphere it is clockwise.
A final requirement for the intensification of tropical cyclones is that there must be little change in the wind speed with height above the surface. If the winds increase too much with altitude, the core of the system will no longer be vertically aligned over the warm surface that provides its energy. The area being warmed and the surface low-pressure centre will move apart, and the positive feedback mechanism described above will be suppressed. Conditions in the tropics that encourage the development of tropical cyclones include a typically minor north-to-south variation in temperature. This relative lack of a temperature gradient causes wind speed to remain relatively constant with height.
Tropical cyclones dissipate when they can no longer extract sufficient energy from warm ocean water. As mentioned above, a tropical cyclone can contribute to its own demise by stirring up deeper, cooler ocean waters. In addition, a storm that moves over land will abruptly lose its fuel source and quickly lose intensity.
A tropical cyclone that remains over the ocean and moves into higher latitudes will change its structure and become extratropical as it encounters cooler water. The transformation from a tropical to an extratropical cyclone is marked by an increase in the storm’s diameter and by a change in shape from circular to comma- or v-shaped as its rainbands reorganize. An extratropical cyclone typically has a higher central pressure and consequently has lower wind speeds. Extratropical cyclones, which are fueled by a north-to-south variation of temperature, weaken and dissipate in a few days.
